SUMMARY 4: DATA ANALYSIS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 COMPARING GROUPS USING QUANTITATIVE DATA

• In the case of comparing two or more groups using quantitative data, researchers can compare them through:

1.  frequency polygons
2. calculation of averages
3. calculation of spreads.

• It is recommend, therefore, constructing frequency polygons, using data on the means of known groups, calculating effect sizes, and reporting confidence intervals when comparing quantitative data from two or more groups.

RELATING VARIABLES WITHIN A GROUP USING QUANTITATIVE DATA

• When researchers examine a relationship between quantitative variables within a single group, the appropriate techniques are:

1.  the scatterplot and,
2. the correlation coefficient.

• Because a scatterplot illustrates all the data visually, researchers should begin their analysis of data obtained from a single group by constructing a scatterplot.
• Therefore, it is recommended that researcher do constructing scatterplots and using both scatterplots and correlation coefficients when relating variables involving quantitative data within a single group.

COMPARING GROUPS USING CATEGORICAL DATA

• When the data are categorical, groups can be compared by reporting either percentages or frequencies in crossbreak tables.
• It is a good idea to report both the percentage and the number of cases in a crossbreak table, as percentages alone can be misleading.
• Therefore, it is recommended to construct crossbreak tables and calculate contingency coefficients when comparing categorical data involving two or more groups.

RELATING VARIABLES WITHIN A GROUP USING CATEGORICAL DATA

• When you are examining relationships among categorical data within one group, again it is recommended to construct crossbreak tables and calculate contingency coefficients.

TWO FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS

• When tests of statistical significance can be applied, it is recommended that they be used to evaluate generalizability only, not to evaluate the magnitude of relationships. Confidence intervals should be reported in addition to significance levels.
• Both parametric and nonparametric techniques should be used to analyze data rather than either one alone.

SUMMARY 3: INSTRUMENTATION II- Interviews, Checklists, and Observations

Interviews
Definition: Interview is a major technique in gathering information used by qualitative researchers. It is in a form of data collection in which individuals or groups are questioned orally.
Purposes: to find out how the participants in a qualitative study think and feel about something. Also, to provide a check on the researcher's observations.

Types of Interview:

1. Structured- A formal type of interview, in which the researcher asks, in order, a set of predetermined questions.
2. Semi-structured - A structured interview, combined with open-ended questions.
3. Informal -  Less-structured forms of interview, usually conducted by qualitative researchers. They do not involve any specific type or sequence of questioning, but resemble more the give-and-take of a casual conversation.
4. Retrospective -  A form of interview in which the researcher tries to get a respondent to reconstruct past experiences.

Observation
Definition: Observation is one of favoured approaches, where more accurate indication of activities would probably be obtained by observing while discussions take place.

There are four roles that an observer can play in a qualitative research study, ranging from:

1. Complete participant to
2. Participant-as-observer to
3. Observer-as-participant to
4. Complete observer

SUMMARY 2: Instrumentation I ~ Questionnaires

In this summary, I will restate some terminologies of the instrumentation tools as presented by the second group.

Instrumentation
Instrumentation refers to the whole process of preparing to collect data which includes:
- Selection or design of the instruments
- Location
- Frequency
- Administration

Questionnaire
Questionnaire refers to a series of questions and other prompts questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.

Likert Scale
Likert Scale is used to measure the strength of an attitude or an opinion.
It provides an excellent means of gathering opinions and attitudes.

Rating Questions
Ratings are assigned solely on the basis of the score's absolute position within a range of possible values.


Advantages of using Questionnaires
1. Very cheap
2. Very close to 100% response
3. Can be distributed through email.


Disadvantages of using Questionnaires
1. Less honest response
2. Rush to complete

SUMMARY 1: Research Design ~Sampling

After Adibah Halilah and Rahayu presenting on this chapter, I can summarize the presentation as follow:

What is a sample?
A sample refers to a small group of people studied to collect information to draw conclusion about the larger group.


What is sampling?
Sampling refers to process of selecting the people (individuals) to be observed (studied).
 
What is a population?
A population refers to all the members of a particular group. It is the group of interest to the researcher, the group to whom the researcher would like to generalize the results of a study.

Target Population vs. Accessible Population
Target Population refers to the ideal/ actual group that researchers like to generalize.
Accessible Population refers to the population who researchers are able to generalize.

Random vs. Non Random Sampling
Random sampling methods include simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster random sampling, and two stage random sampling.
Non Random sampling methods include systematic sampling, convenience sampling, and purposive sampling.